The emergence of a violent conflict involves the participation of two parties in the least with opposing or competing claims or interests and resorting to physical force to resolution. The term violent conflict can be used to describe a conflict that may involve only non-state actors or the involvement of one government (Infocore, 2015). Violent conflict can be categorized according to different characteristics.
Violent conflict can be studied according to the level of conflict and the type or the cause of conflict. The level of conflict can be determined by the type of actors involved in the conflict, Intensity and the geography. Each type has its own distinctive theory, the levels of Violent conflicts are; Global system, Inter-state, civil wars, Inter- or Intra- community large scale conflicts, sub-regional conflicts and high levels of social and Interpersonal violence. Causes and types of conflict can be labeled as political, ideological issues, as social, exclusionary or inclusionary topics or a religious or ethnic focus and state fragility (Infocore, 2015).
A conflict can be characterized by the combination and overlap of different levels and causes of conflicts.
Classification of violent conflicts in terms of levels and types/causes can be studied using Afghanistan as a case in point. Afghanistan is a country with a rich history that goes back over 5000 years due to its complex socio-political landscape the conflicts span into multiple levels. Since the Soviet Invasion Afghanistan has witnessed prolonged civil wars, initially these conflicts were disputes between Mujahideen factions but later these conflicts evolved between the Taliban and the Afghan government. In 2014 Afghanistan adopted its new constitution as an Islamic Republic, however the boundaries between districts and between villages in afghan provinces frequently alter and they are described as ‘local level’. The organizational structure on the local level is diverse, they are controlled by governors, elders, khan, mullah, former commander, warlord or others. Afghanistan is identified as ‘peasant-tribal society, In this backdrop, Afghanistan is classified as one of the high level conflicts and as per the Fragile States Index 2014 (Noormal, 2015). It is classified under the high alert countries and according to the Global Peace Index 2021 Afghanistan was the world’s least peaceful country due to the scope and the intensity of the internal conflicts that has been gradually increasing since 2014 (IEP, 2021). The US led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 ousted the Taliban regime over its refusal to hand over the terrorist Osama Bin Laden who orchestrated the 9/11 attacks, this resulted in a prolonged civil war between the Taliban, Afghan government forces and International coalitions (CFR, 2024). The above discussed levels of conflicts in Afghanistan can be categorized into Civil Wars and Intra-community conflicts.
Afghanistan is home to a multi-cultural, multi-tribal and multilingual population. Majority of political conflicts in Afghanistan have been rooted due to disputes among tribes, their attempts at gaining a higher degree of centralism of power with the help of external foreign support. This dynamic provided the stage for oppressed groups to rise as a cause for the conflict. Despite 99% of the population being Muslim, the sectarian differences between the Sunni and Shias have exacerbated the conflict as well (Noormal, 2015). The nation building process of modern Afghanistan has been slowed due to the identity based narratives circulating in Afghan society. The muslim Pashtuns are estimated as the largest sunni muslim ethnic group the second largest are the Tajiks, the third are the Uzebeks and the Hazara forming the latter. These ethnic narratives resulted in fragmenting the peace fueled by socialism and militant Islam in Afghanistan which
paved the way for a quasi-feudal society with distorted ethnic power focused on conflicting ideologies (Balkhim, 2023). The Taliban’s Targeting Hazara after rising to power with the support of Pashtun in 1994 for resisting their rule is a case in point (The conversation, 2021).
Afghanistan’s Internal struggles mostly stem from disputes over land, water and resources. Lack of strong governance as well as a well established legal framework. In Helmand province, the opium trade is a contributing factor of worsening land disputes amongst the tribes over the best land to cultivate poppy. The Taliban frequently intervenes in conflicts between Pashtun tribes in an attempt to seize power, as was the case in 2017. As demonstrated in 2020 when farmers fought over irrigation near the Kajaki Dam, water shortages exacerbate tensions.
Global and regional factors have had a significant impact on Afghanistan’s conflicts, especially during the Soviet-Afghan War and the War on Terror that followed 9/11. Through programs like the CIA’s Operation Cyclone, which sent billions of dollars toward supplying organizations like Ahmad Shah Massoud’s forces, the United States and Pakistan supported the Mujahideen in the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989), which was a Cold War proxy war. Over a million Afghans were killed in this battle, which left the country in ruins. Afghanistan became the focus of international counterterrorism efforts after 9/11, with NATO-led operations like the 2010 Battle of Marjah attempting to stabilize the nation while dealing with the Taliban’s enduring insurgency. International efforts were made more difficult by Pakistan’s clandestine assistance for the Taliban, which was demonstrated by the 2011 discovery of Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad. Afghanistan became unstable as a result of these invasions, and in 2021 the Taliban took back control.
Violent conflicts in Afghanistan are the result of a complex interaction of political, ideological, ethnic, and external factors, all of which contribute to instability. The Taliban insurgency (1994–present) has been politically motivated by a desire to enforce strict Islamic law, which runs counter to Afghanistan’s democratic goals. Similar ideological divides between the Soviet-supported communist regime and Islamist-leaning Mujahideen forces also arose in the 1980s, fueling protracted instability. The Hazara Shia group has historically been targeted by ethnic and sectarian tensions, as seen by the Taliban-led atrocities in Mazar-i-Sharif and Bamiyan in the late 1990s. Minorities like Tajiks and Uzbeks were disgruntled by Pashtuns’ political domination under rulers like King Zahir Shah and President Hamid Karzai, which paved the way for the ascent of leaders like Ahmad Shah Massoud who opposed Pashtun-centric governments.
In Afghanistan, localized leadership and ethnic supremacy produce sociopolitical processes that exacerbate conflict and divisiveness. While the Taliban’s ethnic appeal has garnered support from Pashtuns in the south and east by aligning with their interests, Pashtun dominance in politics has caused anger among other ethnic groups. As demonstrated by his militia in northern Afghanistan, regional leaders such as Abdul Rashid Dostum function independently, undermining centralized authority and widening ethnic divides. In order to promote stability, inclusive governance and regional collaboration are required since these dynamics produce a volatile climate where grievances and power struggles continue.
In conclusion, a complex interaction of political, ethnic, ideological, and external causes leads to the violent conflicts in Afghanistan. A deeply ingrained cycle of instability has been brought about by the nation’s history of tribal rivalries, resource disputes, and fluctuating power dynamics, all of which have been exacerbated by foreign interventions. These conflicts are exacerbated by Afghanistan’s disjointed administration and ethnic differences, and their extent and intensity are shaped by both domestic and international factors. In order to promote enduring peace, inclusive government, interethnic reconciliation, and consistent foreign assistance are urgently needed. Afghanistan’s path to stability will continue to be difficult if these underlying problems are not addressed.
References
Noormal, A.N. (2015) Conflict analysis: Afghanistan since 2001, Beyond Intractability. Available at: https://www.beyondintractability.org/library/conflict-analysis-afghanistan-2001 (Accessed: 25 April 2024).
Balkhi, M. (2023) Afghanistan’s necessary shift in ethnic narratives: From dominance to dialogue, Wilson Center. Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/afghanistans-necessary-shift-ethnic-narratives-dominance-dialogue (Accessed: 25 April 2024).
Balkhi, M. (2023) Afghanistan’s necessary shift in ethnic narratives: From dominance to dialogue, Wilson Center. Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/afghanistans-necessary-shift-ethnic-narratives-dominance-dialogue (Accessed: 25 April 2024).
Institute for Economics & Peace. Global Peace Index 2021: Measuring Peace in a Complex World, Sydney, June 2021. Available from: http://visionofhumanity.org/reports (accessed: 26 April 2024)
Frère,M.S. & Wilen,N.&(2015). INFOCORE Definitions: “Violent conflict”. Bruxelles: ULB. Online available at http://www.infocore.eu/results/definitions/(2005) Https://www.justice.gov/file/1222386/dl?inline=. Available at: https://www.justice.gov/file/1222386/dl (Accessed: 25 April 2024).
